Civil Liberties, Habeas Corpus, and the War on Terror Essay - 2

Civil Liberties, Habeas Corpus, and the War on Terror - Essay Example The work that follows discusses the right of habeas corpus in the war on terror and its historical evolution. Historical Evolution of habeas corpus According to English tradition, habeas corpus fought for liberty of citizens after English land owners forced it on King John in their constitutional document named Magna Charta (Halliday, 2010). The constitutional document declared that no seizure, imprisonment, exile or injury shall occur on anyone except by lawful judgment by the law of the land. In other words everyone had a right to freedom unless they pass through due law process. The common-law courts became the first to use habeas corpus in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries competing with feudal courts, which local land owners controlled (King & Hoffmann, 2011:). These feudal courts had no consistency in their procedures, and the common-law courts began issuing orders demanding release of prisoners in the feudal courts. According to the U.S tradition, Americans believed habe as corpus as a weapon used to defend an individual’s liberty, and planned to protect it from suspension in times of peace through inclusion of a provision in Article I of their constitution (King & Hoffmann, 2011:). ... ?s war against terrorism, habeas corpus checks abuse of government power on alleged terrorists or suspected aliens or criminals to ensure protection of individuals’ liberty. Examples from U.S. history of the suspension of habeas corpus and their applicability to the present There are several examples of suspension of habeas corpus in the United States history, which are in application at present. An example of habeas corpus suspension is during the reign of Abraham Lincoln. Although authorizing order of the suspension took place in the year 1861, the suspension took place in March 1863 (Dueholm, 2008). The orders given stated that, first, throughout the war period, any person committing a disloyal practice or giving aid to rebels against the U.S authority would be liable to punishment by military commission or courts martial. Secondly, the orders stated that the suspension of habeas corpus was in respect to all persons arrested in places confined by military commission or auth ority. As Article I in the U. S constitution stated, the government had authority to suspend the writ of habeas corpus incase there is risk of security, and when the public safety requires it. Lincoln got authority to suspend habeas corpus after Congress passed an act, two years to the war (Dueholm, 2008). According to the article, the president had executive power vested in them, which gave authority to conduct any changes in the government. The suspension of habeas corpus still applies at present, as the president still has powers to execute changes in the government. Another example in U. S history is seen when Bush signed a law in October 2006 that suspended the rights of habeas corpus to persons whom United States considered an enemy in the war against terror (Longley, 2013). However, this

HUMAN RESOURCES IN ACTION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

HUMAN RESOURCES IN ACTION - Essay Example The link to career is very informative as all jobs contain company description, job description, department, and requirements. However, salary is not mentioned against any job which is one of the main factors users usually look for while finding and applying for a job. I think the website is perfect in everything. For example, navigation is easy for users to do, user interface is very user-friendly, and use of background and text colors is excellent as it makes easy for the users to read the material. However, one thing that I have noted is that the website is a little heavy as it takes some time to move on to the next page. May be this problem does not occur with fast internet connections but for average users, it does take some time. As a manager, the only improvement to the website that I would like to make will be enabling of the drop down list against each link which is not working at the moment for the links. This will definitely make content exploration easier for the users. C ompany 2: Caesars Entertainment The second company chosen for review is Caesars Entertainment which is the world’s premier casino entertainment providing hospitality company. ... Along with this, some links to ‘hot opening’ jobs are also given by default so that users can apply in those jobs directly. However, I did not find many jobs available in the company when I tried to search jobs based on my preferred criteria. I think the website provides sufficient information about everything. Navigation is also easy and takes very less time to open because of no heavy material inside. Use of background and front end text colors also make it easy for the users to read the material. However, the text size is small, which as a manager, I would like to increase in order to make the text easily readable for the users. B) Recruitment Methods for Starwood Hotels and Resorts For the Manager Food and Beverages Department, Starwood Hotels and Resorts can use internal sourcing to make existing employees aware of new job opportunities by publishing information about job vacancies within the company. Some of the main advantages of internal sourcing for the company will include reduced advertising fees, time saving related to candidates’ selection, no training costs for new employees, and increased employee dedication (Richason). Whereas, some disadvantages will include reduced motivation for employees who do not get promotion, no new ideas, and new vacancies left due to promotions (Riley). Starwood Hotels and Resorts can also use external sourcing to recruit employees by publishing job vacancies in magazines, newspapers, and other sources. The advantages of external sourcing for the company would be increased pool for selection, emergence of new cooking and management ideas, and wider range of department management experience. Some

A Depicted Theory On Why Criminal Behavior Occurs Criminology Essay

A Depicted Theory On Why Criminal Behavior Occurs Criminology Essay Throughout history theorist and people have tried to find a reason to why criminal behavior occurs. Going back to ancient Babylons Code of Hammurabi, some 3,700 years ago, was the time where the fist efforts to control bad behavior took place. In the seventeenth century, in America, European colonists believed that sin and crime we the same thing. For example, they believed that evils spirits possessed the people who did not form to social norms and follows the laws, or rules. To sustain control of the colonies the people who display antisocial behavior would be dealt with promptly and most of the time severely. By the twenty-first century criminologists looked to a wide range of factors to explain why a person would commit crimes. These included biological, psychological, social, and economic factors. Some would argue that a combination of these as well would be the cause. A Depicted Theory on Why Criminal Behavior Occurs A controversial question is Are criminals born, or made? That is an argument that has been continuing for many years and has been the subject of numerous passionate debates. Early theorists during earlier time had thought that it had something to do with an inherent inclination, or even something as severe as a genetic defect or some form of mental retardation. Over the years, many sociologists and psychologists have tried to make sense of this complicated question. Several suggesting that with todays magnitude of chemical substances, enhancers, and habit forming hobbies, combined with poor living conditions, learned morals, lifestyles, lack of income and education, that criminality is certainly not an innate tendency, but a lifestyle forced upon certain individuals in response to their environment, social class, and social relations. To completely understand the nature of genes and the environmental influences criminal behavior, you must first know how to define criminal behavior. Law in our society is defined by social and legal institutions. Therefore, determining what constitutes criminal behavior can cover a wide variety of activities so researchers tend to focus on the wider context of antisocial behavior (Causes of Crime, 2010). Personality and disorder traits have become necessary in the analysis of those with criminal or antisocial behavior. Generally these disorders or traits are seen in early childhood rather than as an adult. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Conduct Disorder (CD), and Oppositional Defiance Disorder (ODD) are three of the well-known disorders that have shown to have a relationship with adult behavior later on. ODD is characterized by confrontations, rebellion, and a bad temper. As a child with ODD grows older their behavior grows more unpleasant. ADHD is associated with hyperactivity-impulsivity and the inability to keep attention focused on one thing. When an individual violates the social norms and rules that is a CD (Taylor, 1985). A large amount of proof has shown that there is a considerable amount of people with psychological problems are in our criminal justice system. Although some would like to believe this is some kind of solution, it is problematic for our society. When those individuals who suffer from psychological issues are accused to be criminals there is a sense of stigma that is brought on to them because of their disorder. Certain psychological problems have been shown to be heritable and if given the right circumstances, individuals with those genes could find themselves engaging in criminal activity (Jones, 2005). Environmental concerns in criminal behavior occurrence include employment being at minimum wage or below not helping deter criminal activity. Even with government social services, such as public housing, food stamps, and medical care, the income of a minimum wage household still falls short of providing basic needs. People must make a choice between continued long-term low income and the prospect of profitable crime. Gaining further education, of course, is another option, but classes can be expensive and time consuming. While education can provide the chance to get a better job, it does not always overcome the effects of abuse, poverty, or other limiting factors. Thus far it has been established through research and various studies that genetics do influence criminal or antisocial behavior. Researchers agree on the point that genes influence personality traits and disorders (Blumstien, 1987). The family environment is critical to the upbringing of a child and if problems exist then the child is most likely to suffer the consequences. Children who are neglected or abused are more likely to commit crimes later in life than others. Similarly, sexual abuse in childhood often leads these victims to become sexual predators as adults. Many inmates on death row have histories of some kind of severe abuse. The neglect and abuse of children often progresses through several generations. So the cycle of abuse and crime keeps repeating itself. The cycle of violence concept, based on the quality of early life relationships, has its positive counterpart. Supportive and loving parents who respond to the basic needs of their child instill self-confidence and an interest in social environments. These children are generally well-adjusted in relating to others and are far less likely to commit crimes (Causes of Crime, 2010). In addition to environmental concerns the Twin and Adoption Statists from the studies that have been done. Some believe that studies support the genetic foundation of criminal behavior. Twin studies are done by the way of comparing monozygotic (MZ), or identical, twins and the percent of criminal behavior with the percent of criminal behavior of dizygotic (DZ), or fraternal, twins. Ordinarily these studies are used to assess the roles of genetic and environmental influences. The outcome of the twin studies show that there is a higher similarity percentage for MZ twins than for DZ twins in criminal behavior. Adoption studies are serious in observing the relationship that exists between adopted children and both their biological and adoptive parents, thus because they are believed to separate nature and nurture. Some studies have been performed that test for criminal behavior of the adopted children and if their biological parents had also been involved with criminal activity. Family s tudies are the third type of instrument used to assess the relationship between genetics and environmental influences on criminal or antisocial behavior (Himebauch, 2000). Another significant factor in the development of antisocial or delinquent behavior in adolescence is peer groups. A persons peer group strongly influences a decision to commit crime. For example, young boys and girls who do not fit into expected standards of academic achievement or participate in sports or social programs can sometimes become lost in the competition (Fadaie-Teharani, 2002). Children of families who cannot afford adequate clothing or school supplies can also fall into the same trap. Researchers believe these youth may abandon schoolmates in favor of criminal gangs, since membership in a gang earns respect and status in a different manner. In gangs, antisocial behavior and criminal activity earns respect and street credibility. An important point to make is that levels of education have been determined to be significant in the manifestation of criminal behavior. Individuals with learning disabilities have been shown to be more prone to violent behavior. The major reason for this is given in an interrelated causal pattern of events with education at the center. School achievement is predictive of pro-social behavior or behaviors designated as upholding the moral values of a society. This is because academic achievement is interrelated in our society with several other variables such as financial success, high self-esteem and an internal locus of control. This particular model may account for reasoning behind the general idea that individuals with a high IQ generally have fewer tendencies for criminal behavior than individuals with a low IQ. The hypothesis is that having a higher IQ results in easier achievement in school. As stated above, doing well academically is associated with several societal factors as well. Individuals with a lower IQ may not succeed as much academically which would result in lower self-esteem and not as much financial success, resulting in an increased disposition for criminal behavior. It is important then to stress education and to address issues with learning disabilities at an early age to disallow the appearance of these negative attributes (Himebauch, 2000). Yet another factor many criminologists consider key to making a life of crime easier is the availability of handguns in U.S. society. Many firearms used in crimes are stolen or purchased illegally which means it was bought on what is called the black market. Firearms provide a simple means of committing a crime while allowing offenders some distance or detachment from their victims. By the beginning of the twenty-first century firearm use was the eighth leading cause of death in the United States. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, firearm use was the eighth leading cause of death in the United States (Causes of Crime, 2010). Similarly, the increased availability of free information on the Internet also makes it easy to commit certain kinds of. Web sites provide instructions on how to make bombs and buy poisons. Easy access, however, will not be the primary factor in a persons decision to commit a crime. Social learning theory has been cited as way to explain how the environment can influence a childs behavior. Using this theory to explain the aggressive or antisocial behavior of a child means that a child observes aggressive behavior between parents, siblings, or both. As a result, the children believes that this aggressive behavior is normal and can therefore use it themselves because they do not see the harm in acting similar to their parents. Interaction between family members and disciplinary techniques are influential in creating antisocial behavior. Using the social learning theory these two factors are also critical in the development of aggression (Taylor, 1985). Children who are raised in an aggressive family environment would most likely be susceptible to experiencing a lack of parental monitoring, permissiveness or inconsistency in punishment, parental rejection and aggression. The exposure to such high levels of aggression and other environmental factors greatly influenc es and reinforces a childs behavior. A significant point that should be known however is the fact that other research has supported the notion that genetics do influence levels of aggression, which stands in opposition to the social learning theory (Shepard, 1995).

Darwins Theory of Evolution :: Natural Selection, Evolution Essays

"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life," usually shortened to "the Origin of Species," is the full title of Charles Darwin's book, first published in 1859, in which Darwin formalized what we know today as the Theory of Evolution. Although Darwin is the most famous exponent of this theory, he was by no means the first person to suspect the workings of evolution. In fact, Charles owed a considerable debt to his grandfather Erasmus, a leading scientist and intellectual, who published a paper in 1794, calledZoonomia, or, The Laws of Organic Life. This set down many of the ideas that his grandson elaborated on 70 years later. However, it was Darwin that formalized the theory, and presented the most convincing case for the theory. Charles Darwin was born on the 12th of February 1809 (incidentally, the same day and year as Abraham Lincoln), in Shrewsbury, England. He had a privileged upbringing, and enjoyed science - particularly biology. He graduated from Cambridge University in 1831, and on December the 27th of that year, he set off for a five-year journey aboard the Beagle, a ship bound for South America. His voyage was long and eventful, including once, in Chile, encountering both an earthquake and a tidal wave in a single day! He spent the entire journey sea-sick, but found an interest in naturalism, and began to think about evolution. Using the evidence he found during his tour of South America to back up the basic theories set down by his predecessors, and making his own adjustments and discoveries. Finally, the Beagle arrived home on October the 2nd, 1836. During his travels, Darwin kept five note-books, marked A to E, in which he recorded what he found, made sketches and wrote about his observations and theories. These later became the basis of his book, though in a "condensed and corrected" version, to "render the volume more fitted for popular reading," as Charles stated in the preface to

Feminist and Other Psychoanalytic Trends Essay

The contributions of the socio-cultural approaches to personality, by theorists like Karen Horney, Nancy Chodorow and Margaret Mahler, focusing on social and cultural variables, are compared with that of biologically driven theories. â€Å"Freud had left psychoanalysis focused on the role played by biology in personality development. While biology is important to individual biography, so, too, are an individual’s life history and the presiding cultural and historical context†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kroger, 1996, p. 16). Karen Horney departed from some of the basic principles of Sigmund Freud and suggested social and cultural factors for neuroses and personality disorders. She differed from Freud’s view of female psychology and his inferior portrayal of women. Horney’s realization that, â€Å"Freudian female psychology was only an offshoot of male psychology, to be expected in a male-oriented culture, came when she experienced childbirth† (Foty, 2008, para. 1). She gave the concept of womb envy, opposite to the theory of penis envy, given by Freud. In her book, The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (1937), Horney phrased that â€Å"emphasis is put on the actually existing conflicts and the neurotic’s attempts to solve them†, in the treatment of neurosis. (p. vii). She did not discount the importance of childhood experiences, as theorized by Freud, but disliked the â€Å"one-sided fascination† that childhood held for psychoanalysts (p. vii). According to Freud the tussle between id, ego and superego lead to anxiety. However, Karen Horney in her book, Self Analysis (1942), said that, â€Å"Freud’s disbelief in a wish for self development is linked up with his postulate that the ego is a weak agency tossed about among the claims of instinctual drives, of the outside world and of a forbidding conscience† (p. 23). She disagreed with this analysis and theorized that the infant’s anxiety is caused when the child feels isolated and alone in a hostile world. She argued that, â€Å"†¦Parental indifference, a lack of warmth and affection in childhood† causes anxiety (as cited in Boeree, 2006, Development section, para. 2). According to Horney, children have two basic needs: need for affection and approval, and need for safety. These two needs are the most important amongst the ten needs that she gave for dealing with anxiety and they emerge due to indifference or lack of warmth from parents. She gave three coping strategies for dealing with these needs: moving-toward, which is compliant type, similar to Adler’s getting or leaning approach; moving-against, which is the hostile type, similar to Adler’s ruling or dominant type; moving-away, which is the detached type, similar to Adler’s avoiding type ( Boeree, 2006, Theory section). â€Å"Freud brought forth the individual from the 19th-century family with his concept of the personal unconscious, reformulating ideas about gender and sexuality†. Thereafter feminism â€Å"gained support from psychoanalysis, which was itself transformed by war, revolution, socio-cultural change†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and theories given by Horney and Melanie Klein (Lieberman, 2004). Melanie Klein’s Object Relations Theory emphasized the ego development of the children, during their early years, as being related to parts of objects rather than the whole. â€Å"Margaret Mahler conducted extensive observations of healthy mother-infant and mother-toddler dyads in a naturalistic setting to delineate the process by which the child differentiates itself from its primary care-taker and becomes an autonomous person†(Kroger,1996, p. 51). According to Mahler, â€Å"separation and individuation† are the processes used by infants in the early years of life. Separation is the child’s â€Å"emergence from a symbiotic fusion with the mother†, whereas individuation is â€Å"those achievements marking the child’s assumption of his own individual characteristics† (p. 51). Mahler gave four stages of separation- individuation process: Differentiation (5 to 10 months), which is the beginning of the difference between self and the primary caregiver; Practicing (10 to 16 months), which marks the emergence of motor abilities; Rapprochement (16 to 24 months), during which, â€Å"children first get a real sense that they are individuals, separate from their mothers† (â€Å"Mahler†, 2007); Consolidation and object Constancy (24 to 36 months), in which the kids know that their mother will be back and are not anxious in their absence. Two processes take place at this last phase: â€Å"The achievement of a definite†¦ individuality†, and â€Å"the attainment of a certain degree of object constancy†(Kroger, 1996, p. 53). In her book The Reproduction of Mothering, Nancy Chodorow (1978), another Object Relations theorist, pointed out, â€Å"women experience a sense of self-in-relation that is in contrast to men’s creation of a self that wishes to deny relation and connection†(p. viii). Mother’s â€Å"by virtue of their gender, experience daughters like them and sons unlike†. Consequently, girls and boys internalize these differences and â€Å"transform these unconscious maternal communications through their own intra-psychic capacities†. (p. viii). This leads to men being more independent and women more empathetic. The girls attachment to her mother is â€Å"preoedipal†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦concerned with â€Å"early mother-infant relational issues† and â€Å"issues of dependence and individuation†. A Boy’s â€Å"attachment to his mother† is oedipal, expressing â€Å"his sense of difference and masculine oppositeness to her†. (p. 97). Freud’s Oedipus complex was to explain sexual identity whereas the individuation process explains the child’s gender identity. Separation-individuation theory outlines the importance of â€Å"nurture in human development† (Edward, Ruskin & Turrini, 1991, p. 3). The relationship between mother and child during infancy plays an integral role in the child’s growth in later years. â€Å"†¦separation-individuation assumes different developmental pathways for men and women, with men cultivating a personality style that emphasizes autonomy and women cultivating one in which attachment needs take precedence†(Gnaulati & Heini, 2001). References Boeree, C. G. (2006). Personality theories. In Shippensburg University my website. Retrieved March 10, 2008, from http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/perscontents. html. Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Edward, J. , Ruskin, N. , Turrini, P. (1992). Separation/Individuation: Theory and application. (2nd ed. ). New York: Brunner-Routledge. Foty, G. R. (1988). A Mind of Her Own: The Life of Karen Horney. Smithsonian, 19, n5. p. 127(2). Retrieved March 15, 2008, from British Council Journals Database via Gale: http://find. galegroup. com/ips/start. do? prodId=IPS Gnaulati, E. , & Heine, B. J. (2001). Separation-individuation in late adolescence: an investigation of gender and ethnic differences. The Journal of Psychology, 135, 1. p. 59(12). Retrieved March 15, 2008, from British Council Journals Database via Gale: http://find. galegroup. com/ips/start. do? prodId=IPS Horney, K. (1942). Self analysis. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. Horney, K. (1937). The neurotic personality of our time. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. , Ltd. Kroger, J. (1996). Identity in adolescence: The balance between self and other. London: Routledge. Lieberman, E. J. (2004). Zaretsky, Eli. Secrets of the Soul: A Social and Cultural History of Psychoanalysis. Library Journal, 129, 10. p. 162(1). Retrieved March 15, 2008, from British Council Journals Database via Gale: http://find. galegroup. com/ips/start. do? prodId=IPS Mahler’s Theory of Development. (2007). KidsDevelopment. Retrieved March 15, 2008, from http://www. kidsdevelopment. co. uk/MahlersDevelopmentTheory. html

Porphyria

The disorder I chose to do is called Porphyria. It can cause red bloches on the skin. It can also severely affect the nervous system. Ichose this disorder because it had a name similar to Porpise. Porphyria is a group of disorders caused by abnormalities in the chemical steps that lead to heme production. Heme is a vital molecule for all of the body's organs, although it is most abundant in the blood, bone marrow, and liver. Heme is a component of several iron-containing proteins called hemoproteins, including hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen in the blood). Researchers have identified several types of porphyria, which are distinguished by their genetic cause and their signs and symptoms. Some types of porphyria, called cutaneous porphyrias, primarily affect the skin. Areas of skin exposed to the sun become fragile and blistered, which can lead to infection, scarring, changes in skin coloring (pigmentation), and increased hair growth. Cutaneous porphyrias include congenital erythropoietic porphyria, erythropoietic protoporphyria, hepatoerythropoietic porphyria, and porphyria cutanea tarda. Other types of porphyria, called acute porphyrias, primarily affect the nervous system. These disorders are described as â€Å"acute† because their signs and symptoms appear quickly and usually last a short time. Episodes of acute porphyria can cause abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation, and diarrhea. During an episode, a person may also experience muscle weakness, seizures, fever, and mental changes such as anxiety and hallucinations. These signs and symptoms can be life-threatening, especially if the muscles that control breathing become paralyzed. Acute porphyrias include acute intermittent porphyria and ALAD deficiency porphyria. Two other forms of porphyria, hereditary coproporphyria and variegate porphyria, can have both acute and cutaneous symptoms. Each form of porphyria results from mutations in one of these genes: ALAD, ALAS2, CPOX, FECH, HMBS, PPOX, UROD, or UROS. The genes related to porphyria provide instructions for making the enzymes needed to produce heme. Mutations in most of these genes reduce enzyme activity, which limits the amount of heme the body can produce. As a result, compounds called porphyrins and porphyrin precursors, which are formed during the process of heme production, can build up abnormally in the liver and other organs. When these substances accumulate in the skin and interact with sunlight, they cause the cutaneous forms of porphyria. The acute forms of the disease occur when porphyrins and porphyrin precursors build up in and damage the nervous system. One type of porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, results from both genetic and nongenetic factors. About 20 percent of cases are related to mutations in the UROD gene. The remaining cases are not associated with UROD gene mutations and are classified as sporadic. Many factors contribute to the development of porphyria cutanea tarda. These include an increased amount of iron in the liver, alcohol consumption, smoking, hepatitis C or HIV infection, or certain hormones. Mutations in the HFE gene (which cause an iron overload disorder called hemochromatosis) are also associated with porphyria cutanea tarda. Other, as-yet-unidentified genetic factors may also play a role in this form of porphyria. Some types of porphyria are inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the gene in each cell is mutated. This single mutation is sufficient to reduce the activity of an enzyme needed for heme production, which increases the risk of developing signs and symptoms of porphyria. Autosomal dominant porphyrias include acute intermittent porphyria, most cases of erythropoietic protoporphyria, hereditary coproporphyria, and variegate porphyria. Although the gene mutations associated with some cases of porphyria cutanea tarda also have an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, most people with this form of porphyria do not have an inherited gene mutation. Other porphyrias are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, which means both copies of the gene in each cell have mutations. Most often, the parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive condition each carry one copy of the mutated gene, but do not show signs and symptoms of the condition. Porphyrias with an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance include ALAD deficiency porphyria, congenital erythropoietic porphyria, and some cases of erythropoietic protoporphyria. When erythropoietic protoporphyria is caused by mutations in the ALAS2 gene, it has an X-linked dominant pattern of inheritance. The ALAS2 gene is located on the X chromosome, which is one of the two sex chromosomes. In females (who have two X chromosomes), a mutation in one of the two copies of the gene in each cell may be sufficient to cause the disorder. In males (who have only one X chromosome), a mutation in the only copy of the gene in each cell causes the disorder. Males may experience more severe symptoms of the disorder than females. A striking characteristic of X-linked inheritance is that fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to their sons. Mutations in the UROD gene are related to both porphyria cutanea tarda and hepatoerythropoietic porphyria. Individuals who inherit one altered copy of the UROD gene are at increased risk for porphyria cutanea tarda. (Multiple genetic and nongenetic factors contribute to this condition. ) People who inherit two altered copies of the UROD gene in each cell develop hepatoerythropoietic porphyria. The exact prevalence of porphyria is unknown, but it probably ranges from 1 in 500 to 1 in 50,000 people worldwide. Overall, porphyria cutanea tarda is the most common type of porphyria. For some forms of porphyria, the prevalence is unknown because many people with a genetic mutation associated with the disease never experience signs or symptoms. Acute intermittent porphyria is the most common form of acute porphyria in most countries. It may occur more frequently in northern European countries, such as Sweden, and in the United Kingdom. Another form of the disorder, hereditary coproporphyria, has been reported mostly in Europe and North America. Variegate porphyria is most common in the Afrikaner population of South Africa; about 3 in 1,000 people in this population have the genetic change that causes this form of the disorder. Patients diagnosed with porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT) are screened for other diseases. They may be treated with phlebotomy (blood collection) to reduce body iron stores and/or receive other treatments to decrease photosensitivity of the skin. Specialists advise PCT patients to wear protective clothing and use sunscreen at all times to reduce skin damage. PCT affects about 80 percent of patients with porphyria. It is the most common non-acute porphyria and by far the most common porphyria. Although acute intermittent porphyria (AIP) is the most common acute porphyria, it is still quite rare. It usually affects women between 20 and 40 years old and men between 30 and 50. Because patients with an acute attack of AIP can rapidly develop a life-threatening illness, physicians often recommend hospitalization. While being monitored in the intensive care unit, patients may be treated with intravenous fluids, a high-carbohydrate diet, and medications that suppress porphyrin production. As you can see, Porphyria is a terrible disease. It affecs many and can even kill those affected. Reaserch on cures and treatments is still underway. We can only hope they find a cure before more people are affected.